Backdoor attacks pose a significant threat to deep learning models, enabling adversaries to manipulate the output through hidden triggers. Recent detection methods aim to identify backdoors without relying on clean samples or assumptions about attacks. Although they report strong performance, these methods are rarely evaluated on pre-trained models. In this pa- per, we present the first large-scale study of data-free backdoor detection on pre-trained models. Our benchmark includes more than 30,000 models and covers common backdoor at- tacks. We find that existing data-free methods fail on most pre- trained models, leading to a false sense of security. Despite our effective improvements, serious vulnerabilities remain. To address this, we propose using convergence speed as a new side-channel signal for backdoor detection. Using this signal, we reveal the cause of the remaining vulnerabilities and build a novel data-free detector that achieves state-of-the- art performance against existing methods. We further analyze how backdoor attacks evade detection and outline unresolved issues. Our results indicate that detecting backdoor attacks requires further exploration. We hope that our work can draw attention to the vulnerabilities in backdoor detection mecha- nisms for machine learning systems.
Usenix Security Symposium (USENIX-Security)
2026-08-12
2026-07-17